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PART I: Church and society during Pius VII

  1. PART I: Church and society during Pius VII
  2. Pastoral / Theological orientations during Pius XII
  3. John XXIII
  4. Idea of the Council
  5. PART II: Preparation of the Council
  6. Functioning of the Council
  7. Formation of Council's identity
  8. Paul VI and proceeding of the Council
  9. Paul VI and the Council.
  10. The mature Council

Part 1. The Church at the eve of the Council
Chapter 1 - Church and society during the pontificate of Pius XII (1939-1958)

1) Towards another society

Profound changes in society after Second World War
Western World: Intensive industrialization - Industrialization decreased agricultural society, increase in personal income, establishment of welfare state, More material welfare, decreased emphasis on spiritual values. New scientific discoveries and technical applications; Progress in medicine (longer lives, contraceptions); Progress in education (universal primary, and even broadening university education); Urbanization (break up of rural communities, more autonomous individuals); New mass media: television: massification of society. Many of these changes speed up live and decrease in spiritual values and reflection. Politically independent, but economically dependent.
Global World: End of colonization, rise of Third World

Consequences for the Church

Regarding Third World: Rethinking missionary enterprise: turn toward inculturation, building up young churches with local clergy and hierarchy, social doctrine in international perspective. Rerum novarum (1891) began this thinking, then Quatragesimo Anno (1931) are limited to social problems in the west: capital and labor. But it didn't touch global inequity.
Regarding Western World: Response to pluralist society: presence towards isolation - church is merely one element of society, not the pervasive presence; now it is yeast that offers its message rather than imposing it. More individualist and conscious faithful: participation, responsibility instead of passivity and docility. People not only ask questions, but want to offer their own voice and their own answers. There is a need for adaptation pastoral structures and methods to the new realities. No longer a local parish in the countryside.

2) Pius XII: a pontificate in ‘splendid isolation’?

Became pope at 64 in 1939: intellectual, diplomat, aristocrat. 3 doctorates Both Laws and Theology, 4 languages, French, German, English and Italian. German Nuntio 1917 in Berlin. 1930: secretary of state. 1939 as pope. 10 years of skillful, dynamic leadership. Mingling in politics and tensions in pastoral / theological problems. Autocratic, centralized ruling: Tardini said: ‘no collaborators but simple executors.’ He appointed Secretary of State Maglione (died 1944). Then he appoints pro-secretaries Montini and Tardini. They didn't have the power or authority, they weren't made cardinals or even bishops. Tardini also notes pope's reduced and impersonal contact with bishops - curia stagnated, old guard remained there, and no newer people came in. Pius starts to banish more liberal people in the curia, e.g. Montini - removed in 1945 - promoted out of the curia to Archbishop of Milan - but not a cardinal. Group of close collaborators who were rigid and conservative - when the pope became ill, this group became influential. It ended in 'splendid isolation' turned away from the changes in church and society.
Consequence: In the end, the pontificate was unified and firm in orientation, but felt as not adapted to time and outmoded. There was a disconcerting immobility. This gave rise to a foment for change among many in the Church.

3.Church and politics: the defense of Christianity

3.1. War politics - this was not a question at the time of Vatican II. 1939 he became pope, a few months before the outbreak of the War he worked to prevent it. First encyclical Summi Pontificatus is a clear condemnation of totalitarian systems, equality of human beings, both Jew and Gentile. Then in the first years was the remain neutral in contrast to Benedict XV who had tried to remain neutral and taken heat from both sides. He condemned totalitarianism. The allies had the west plus totalitarian Russia - and Germany was totalitarian as well. He gave no specific condemnation of communism, which would have been a backhanded affirmation of the Nazi regime. He also didn't condemn Facism or Natzism. In 1942 he came out against the 'jewish problem' in the Christmas message - 100s of 1000s of people put to death or condemned to slow extinction simply because of their race. It is somewhat vague and not fierce. He believed in diplomacy rather than prophetic denunciation. He felt it could have turned against Catholics in Germany and occupied countries. Frenetic activity: diplomatic - better for bishops to decide what can be done locally. Active humanitarian assistance for victims of war, including giving asylum to 5000 Roman Jews. There was gratitude in the early years after the war. Later, a play Der Stellverheber - antisemitic Hakhuth. Pius is depicted as an accomplice of Hitler to fight communism and for personal benefit. There was nevertheless a latent antisemitism in the church. 1964: R. Hochhut: The representative: portrayed as anti-semitic pope.

3.2) Postwar politics


a) Theocratic view on relation Church-State

Pius had not accepted pluralism he wanted to hold fast to the theocratic state. Concordat with Spain, 27 August 1953 with dictator Franco provided: 1. recognition of Catholic Church as independent and privileged institute; 2. legal provisions for Church dominance in matrimony and education; 3. immunity; 4. restrictions to non-Catholic worship. This was only possible in Spanish context of Franco-regime. Franco wanted to give the church an independent privileged position according to the 19th century model. Protections for clergy and religious, cases referred to church courts.

b) Internal politics: fight leftwing tendencies, support rightwing tendencies

Pronouncement of 30 June 1949: refusal sacraments and excommunication for communist voters - clear pronouncement in the context of the cold war. International political situation (Cold War) broadly aimed at western europe, but it was more intended for internal Italian politics, to warn against pro-leftwing tendency among Catholics in postwar years. The Italian Catholics who were isolated in the war years had come into contact with non Catholics and non believers. The saw there was a lot of good in 'leftwing' ideas. It had a dubious outcome for the elections, and it caused church / state tensions, and tensions among catholics. In 1952 there was again pressure in favor of anticommunist alliance. This was true, even if the Nazi/Facist totalitarians had all been rightwingers. The church was seen as siding with the rich, brokering a relation with the neo-facists and Christian Democrat elite against the Communist proliteriate types.

c) International scene

Cold War struggle against communism. At the end of the War 1944, the allied forces divided europe into spheres of influence. Russian advance in Eastern Europe. Comintern was organized to control solidify Russian power. In 1948-9 they took: Czechoslovakia, China, Berlin blockade of West Berlin. Civil war in China 1949 ended with Mao Tze Tung creating a communist state in China. There was persecution Catholics in communist countries - people were seen as allied with the pope and western powers. Baltic states were annexed. Hierarcs and clergy oppressed, Catholic education closed. Pope harshly condemned Communism while the locals were looking for a more cooperative path. This gave rise to the pronouncement of 1949 for Catholics in Eastern Europe. 1956: Hungarian crisis - people revolted and the russians put it down harshly: three encyclicals against communism in ten day period. This was a strongly politicized papal policy.

Pastoral / Theological orientations during Pius XII

Chapter 2 - The pontificate of Pius XII: Pastoral and theological orientations

Between old and new -

1) Legacy of Contrareformation Tridentinism. and modernist crisis.

Thomist theology was the official theology, based on medieval philosophy. It was rational, abstract and speculative, scholastic and dialectic. Reaffirmed in 19th Century and developed neo-thomism. 1879 Aeternae Patris. Didn't go back far enough, and didn't come modern enough - Cardinal Mercier established Institute of Philosophy. This was seen as important because they were worried about new theologies and tendencies to subjectivity and historical approach.
Modernist crisis began with modern bible exegesis; more scientific study to catch up with the protestants who had begun this 100 years earlier, which had been encouraged by Leo XIII. Bible Institute in Jerusalem under Henri LaGrange. Some may have been imprudent in bring up the questions. Pius X 1907 Pascendi Gregis put a halt to this. Then modern bible exegesis went underground because it was seen as dangerous. This continued under Pius XII.
Church was seen as Societas perfecta inaequalium hierarchica et monarchica’. Ordained better than others. Trent had clericized the church. Inequality of each level lording it over the others. Papal primacy defined only in the 19th century. Ultra-montanists uber romanita, as opposed to stronger national church. Pastor Aeternus 1870. Papal primacy and infallibility.
Extra ecclesia nulla salus, also the inequality of people inside and outside the church.

Liturgy

sacral and Latin - very otherworldly. A bit of a show and people were passive bystanders. Liturgy was the exclusive terrain of the clergy. Bishop ordinary minister of confirmation and ordination. Eucharist was seen as primarily sacrifice - the liturgy of the word was seen as protestant.

Piety

individual, devotional Immaculate conception 1854 - formula prayers without personal reflection. Each cares for their own salvation - no sense of community. Sinners doing religious duties.

Moral standards

clear standards, repair of sins - set of obligations, rules and prohibitions. Pray pay and obey. All was prohibited except what was obliged. Simple, clear and steril. Sinners, confession more than communion. Asceticism and penance, also in religious houses.

Apostolic activity

Catholic Action was new in the interwar period, launched by Pius XI. Hierarchs became aware they needed lay people to defend the church since the rulers aren't protecting. It was still under the thumb of the hierarchs.

2) Renewal trends

a) important agents:: include: Dominicans P. Chenu, Y. Congar, H.M. Féret; Jesuits: P. Teilhard de Chardin, H. de Lubac, J. Daniélou, H. Bouillard; and Laymen: E. Mounier (Esprit)

b) new kind of theology/theologian

Isolated versus open for “signs of the time’. A thomist is isolated in his study and is isolated from the real world. Theologians should also have pastoral duties. Deductive versus inductive; Authoritative versus serving; Self-assured versus humble; intellectual versus spiritual relevance; univocal versus plurivocal; exclusive versus accessible

c) back to the sources

the quest for a new tradition; 1943 Divino Afflante Spiritu; modern bible exegesis (H. Lagrange, L Cerfaux); the bible movement; study of patrology, both Latin and Greek fathers; theology and spirituality: living source of inspiration. There were perceived dangers - ‘translation of message’ into contemporary terms. In a revaluation of Greek tradition, there was also a putting into perspective of scholastic theology. Look to the history of Church and doctrine: contextualisation of Thomas Aquinas, dogmatic controversies. Going back further than Thomas. Thomas was also see to be a dynamic evolving corpus. Consequence was revitalization of spirituality, historical relativization of ‘immutable’ theological concepts.

d) Theology in the perspective of the modern world.

There were new challenges: 1) secularized society and multicultural world; 2) progress of natural and human sciences biology, sociology, psychology (evolution, behavioral sciences); 3) appeal of non-christian philosophical currents: marxism, existentialism, economic determinism. Satre and existentialism. Personalism arose in france with emmanuel mounier - L'Esprit. Thus: there was attention to: material values, social progress, human experience, person and community. There were new answers, new theologies, 1) theology and evolution [WWW]Teilhard de Chardin, incarnational versus eschatological approach: realisation of Gods plan by human beings in history and profane world. 2) theology of history/theology of earthly values of Daniélou and Thils (Leuven: Theologie de realites terrestie); France was the center of all these new things. 3) theology of labour of Yves Congar. Casuistics and formality had been in the foreground, but now the meaning and spirituality of sacraments became revalorized.

e) New visions on Church and faith

Church seen as mission; incarnation and inculturation with a view to dynamic versus static reality. Pius XII increased number of cardinals and also from other places in the world. There was a new kind of catholicity/belief. There was a turn to authentic and existential versus devotional, insistence on christological foundation and on personal encounter with a human God. John Henry Newman was an important thinker, not formed in traditional theological school - not a thomist, creature standing before the creator, in the here and now. There was also a new ethics: focus on personal conscience and responsibility; human situation versus impersonal fixed recipies; situational ethics - more relative.
Also new ecclesiologicies: 1943: Mystici corporis Christi focussed on christological foundation of the church, the church as spiritual community, spiritual reality as against a juridical reality of the societas perfecta of the hierarchy.
The liturgical movement advanced participation and community, some things in vernacular, e.g. readings. Pius X had started in this direction with frequent communion documents. 1947 Mediator Dei and other concessions (Holy Week, Eucharist fast, vernacular hymns, concelebration, communion fast decreases), spurred a renewal sacramental theology, a theology of bishops and diocesan clergy as distinct from monastic spirituality.
The lay movement - 1951, 1956: International congresses advancing their own spirituality, conjugal ethics (casti connubii - no contraception, all intercourse to be ordered to procreation, NFP was left available in serious cases.) (1951), their own way and field of action, the relation lay-clergy: 1) responsibility versus autonomy; 2) ‘ecclesia discens’ versus ‘ecclesia docens’ - lay people instead sought a more mature christianity; 3) Mediator Dei admits ‘common priesthood of the faithful’, but disembowels it of meaning; 4) Church as ‘people of God’. Congar wrote on theology of laity, Albert Dendeyne of KULeuven also.
Rise of the ecumenical movement given impetus in 1948: World Council of Churches. Pius XII versus ecumenist theologians (Congar)

f) Ideas in practice

[WWW]priest worker movement. 1941: ‘Mission de France’ was a new type of seminary in Lisieux Book published in 1943 by H. Godin and Y. Daniel La France, pays de mission - France a missionary country. The church has been estranged from the working class. Worked with Catholic Action: required adaptation of methods, change of structure and attitude to bring the message of gospel to industrial workers; in practice: priests sharing in life, working conditions and social struggle; It also included liturgical/structural adaptations, a ‘common priesthood’. Cardinal Emmuelle Suhard of Paris backed the initiative.

3) The Roman reaction.

There was a polarization between conservative and progressive forces. Rome: on the one hand cautious concessions on different fields, but there was growing anxiety. In 1950 Humani Generis demanded 1) immutability dogma, 2) caution in exegesis, 3) against polygenism, 4) false eirenicism (easy peace with other churches). Can be compared with condemnation of modernism, firm but not so harsh. There was also support for Marian devotion: 1950: dogma Assumption of Blessed Virgin - an endorsement of devotional piety, which went against the liturgical renewal - a clear manifestation of papal authority; 1954: Marian year. There was Roman attack on progressive theologians; and in 1954: Pius XII condemned the priest worker movement and strictly limited work to 3hrs / day, so couldn't have a job - dramatic conflict and crisis for those involved, most submitted; The pontificate ended in atmosphere of antinomy and suppression. Roger Aubert on Pius IX raised concerns to be on index, even though it wasn't polemical.

John XXIII

The pope of the Council

1) Election

28 October 1958, Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (77 year): transitional pope? He was not a person of either side, quite a contrast with Pius XII. Friendly, moderate, kind, even holy. Conservatives said he would be good for appearances - diplomatic and pastoral experience.

2) Life

°1881 peasant family, Sotto il Monte, province of Bergamo, seminary education Bergamo, theological studies Rome - PhD in Church History on Chas. Borromeo who did 'pastoral implementation' of Trent. 1904: secretary of bishop Bergamo Radini-Tedeschi: pastoral training school. 1925-1944: apostolic visitator/delegate Bulgaria (till 1934), Turkey and Greece; there he showed sensitivity for ecumenical problems. 1944: nuncio in France. Friends with Feltin, with whom he supported priest worker movement. 1953: patriarch of Venice. 1958: papal office; spirituality. Seen as traditional, also in spirituality: Neri, de Sales, Loyola, 'a Kempis.

3) Pope John XXIII

First moves:: Name of John, break with the recent pope names. His first aim was duty as pastor, good shepherd, bishop of Rome. He had a refreshing personality and style of governing: He reactivated (rather than) Curia. He named Secretary of State - the office had been vacant under Pius XII: Tardini obvious choice, but collaboration between John XXIII and Tardini, but he still made that choice, in 1961: Cicognani - former US nuncio. He decentralized responsibilities, He resumed working audiences, giving incentives rather than dictating outcome. This was last done in 1588 by Sixtus V - he set the number of Cardinals at 70. Under Pius XII this decreased to 50. Just a few days after his installation, John XXIII created new 23 new cardinals, enlarged (to 87) and internationalized. He chose functionaries from many quarters.

4) Papal policy

In line of tradition: 1) reaction to communists in April 1959: Ottaviani, a hardliner of Pius XII, he confirms him in the Holy Office, June 1959: Ad Petri Cathedram - supports holy office in condemning communists. 2) He confirmed ban against priest workers (July 1959), making it more severe. 3) Veterum Sapientia (February 1962): Latin as language of liturgy and seminary education; 4) Index of prohibited books; 5) role of the laity

b.Innovative trends

John XXIII's attitude was that of a confident father versus judging authority; optimistic view versus defensive reaction. There was a confidence in upholding the truth, and yet not imposing the truth - one should ‘expound doctrine with calm and simplicity.’ He had a policy of aggiornamento, unity and peace (within and among Catholic Church, Christian Churches, World). On January 25, 1959: announcement of ecumenical council: to realize this plan. An ambitious program for so ‘old’ and ‘transitory’ a pope.

Other initiatives

1) the ecumenical movement: He saw the differences as more institutional and cultural than doctrinal. He made overtures to Orthodox Churches, Athenagoras (Christmas message 1958). In June 1960: Secretariat of Christian Unity was established with Cardinal Augustin Bea at the head. This lead in December 1960 to the visit Anglican archbishop Fisher, the presence of catholic observers at assemblies World Council of Churches, and observers of other Christian Churches at Vatican Council. These beginning contacts were important after 4 centuries of stonewalling. However Pius XII had sent some informal representatives.
2) John XXIII developed a concept of brotherhood and peace of humankind and of his role in a universal fatherhood. There were crisis moments in the Cold War.
Berlin crisis (August-September 1961 - Berlin wall.) John XXIII intervened, and appealed ‘to all our sons, to all who believe in God, and also the unbelievers, because all belong to God and to Christ by virtue of our origin and redemption.’ His appeal for peace was received mostly positively by the Soviet premier Khrushchev, who described it as a ‘good sign’, and applauded John XXIII’s ‘sound reason’ in warning about a worse war. Khrushchev saw it as support for himself, which wasn’t quite true, but anyway John XXIII’s appeal did help ease tensions.

the Cuban Missile Crisis

October-November 1962 (during the first months of the Council) – Soviet ships headed to Cuba, to install nuclear missiles there. President Kennedy launched a very fierce reaction against this on tv: we cannot allow these missiles in our backyard, and will do anything to stop these missiles, even using force. Never since WW2 was the world so close to a world war. John XXIII intervened again, this time through Vatican Radio. He appealed for peace, based on the principles of justice and equity. Again Khrushchev saw this as support for him, against the ‘aggressors of the West’ and ‘the American threat’. But, this did allow Khrushchev a way to withdraw his ships without losing too much face (‘look, aren’t I a good boy? I’m doing what the Pope asks’)
John XXIII meant even more than peace and unity between East and West. He looked also towards the Third World, and called for more unity and peace worldwide. E.g. in his New Year’s message of 1961, he said that ‘it is the search after peace that we would commend to the whole world at the opening of this new year.’ And he continued, ‘we would like to hope, and in our prayer we ask it continually of the Lord, that once the legitimate aspirations of the people towards liberty and independence have been realised, the richer will help the poorer, the stronger will sustain the weaker, the more advanced will guide the less developed, and all will in the end feel themselves to be brothers, because all are sons of the very same loving Father that is in heaven.’ This is the kernel of his ideas, and a preview of his future encyclicals.

Encyclicals

Mater et Magistra (May 1961) on the role of the State for 1) human welfare, 2) on human rights, 3) on democracy (which he placed in a central role in resolving human problems, a shift from his predecessors, and 4) on the underdeveloped countries. Pacem in Terris (April 1963) was written to “all men of good will” on 1) religious tolerance; 2) the difference between a philosophical system and political, social program (peaceful existence with communists); 3) rights of all nations and all people to freedom and independence; 4) affirming the role of United Nations. John XXIII turned his attention and concern to the third world and on the duty of first world countries to assist poor. He spoke to all men of good will.

John XXIII never thought anything else than that the Communist philosophy was false – he always upheld the truth. But at the same time he felt that even if Communism was false and erroneous, this should not prevent the collaboration of Catholics and Communists on the same concrete objectives such as peace and social justice. His message was to look past Communist theory to what Communists actually do.
John XXIII also rejected the idea and attitude of the Cold War – he rejected war as a means to repair violations of justice. Pacem et Terris again spoke of the Pope’s primary concern for the problems and rights of developing countries. All races and peoples enjoy the same inalienable rights. Noone is inferior. All people have the right to develop, the right to freedom and independence, in terms of politics, economics and culture. He spoke out against uneven divisions in the world. He wanted the Council to deal with these sorts of questions, questions of the exterior world, not just of the Catholic world. Indeed, he wanted ‘all people of good will’ to do this.

Positive reaction of Khrushchev

and he went on to award the Pope the Balzan prize. Unfortunately, the Pope was too sick to receive the prize (he died several weeks later), but then, amazingly enough, the son-in-law of Khrushchev, the editor of the most important newspaper in the Soviet Union, along with his wife (Khrushchev’s daughter), went to Rome to present the Pope with this peace prize. The Secretary General of the UN (Hammaskjold) also reacted favourably – Pacem et Terris had spoken favourably of the UN (as the ‘public authority of the world community’), and the UN’s Declaration of Human Rights (Pacem et Terris, number 142ff).
Many Catholics reacted positively, but at the same time the encyclical was also taken badly by many people – more traditionally-minded people in the West, the US Government (Pacem et Terris seemed to be criticising Western politics and US politics), Christian Democrats in Italy (at the lifting of the ban on voting for Communists – this happened to be a bad time, around the time of elections, and indeed the Christian Democrats lost voters in this election, but unfortunately there was no better time for this encyclical, with the Pope’s imminent death. But the Pope had made it clear: his first concern was not Italian politics, but world politics). John XXIII was startled by people taking his message so badly.

Death

3 June 1963. A short reign, but ‘one of the most captivating pontificates’ (according to the Times). ‘Captured the public imagination.’

Idea of the Council

Chapter 4

1) The announcement

Consistory 25 January 1959, St. Paul outside the Walls he gave a program of his pontificate. “Trembling a little with emotion but at the same time humbly resolute in my purpose, I announce to you a double celebration which I propose to undertake: a diocesan synod for the City and a general (ecumenical) Council for the universal Church,” which will “lead to the desired and awaited modernization of the Code of Canon law.” most important of the announcements was the realization of Council. It was the Pope's own idea, a free and independent decision, ‘a sudden inspiration’, ‘a new Pentecost’. We know that it was conceived earlier, but was communicated to Tardini only week before. Diocesan synod took only a week and didn't amount to much.

2) Reponses and Echos

There was Worldwide attention, a)Non-Catholic Christians had positive reactions: Orthodox Churches (Athenagoras); World Council of Churches: protestant secretary W.A. Visser ‘t Hooft. Anglican Archbishop, responded as well. But also mistrust and uncertainty about ‘ecumenical’ character of Council

b) Catholic circles

Cardinals: responded with ‘impressive devout silence.” Few and cold reactions (also Martini and Lercaro). There was Bewilderment and worry in Curia; hardly attention from Osservatore Romano and Civilta Cattolica, and a slow or no response from most bishops. Explanation for resistance: there is no clear reason, is this the best way to induce reforms? There was also a lack of imagination. Curia saw it as a gigantic chaotic show.

Positive reactions

Even enthusiasm among faithful and theologians. Latent wishes for reform come to the surface. An important book was written and very popular: Hans Küng “Konzil und Wiedervereinigung. Erneuerung als Ruf in die Einheit (The Council, Reform and Reunion, 1960). Kung was 32 years old and he wrote this as a sort of program of the council. The council would be a rethinking the Reformation, a reappreciation of Bible, a source of liturgical renewal, common priesthood of the Christian people, beginning dialogue with other cultures, freedom from political ties, reform of the Roman Curia, abolishment of the Index (from the 16th century).

3) Aim and Character of the Council

From Allocution 25 January 1959: “bringing the new pontificate into clear and definite correspondence with the spiritual needs of the present day...” “The enlightenment, edification and joy of the entire Christian people...” “a renewed cordial invitation to the faithful of the separated Churches to participate in the quest for unity, which joins so many souls in every quarter of the world.” However, the aim remained vague; Pope had trust in Holy Spirit: not everything to be foreseeable and calculated from the outset, thought he had an idea about character, he expected that more would be specified in exchange of ideas.

It was not a council of reunion, but there was a definite ecumenical approach. It was clearly a Catholic council, not a not reunion Council as in late Middle Ages. It sought unity: but first of all inner unity. There was an invitation of official delegates of non-Catholic Christian Churches as ‘observers’ to the Council.

Aggiornamento

updating the books, change, fresh air. He meant this literally: updating of books and costumes, but also in a broader more fundamental sense: he sought internal renewal of Church by 1) tuning in to and taking account of the ‘signs of the time’; 2) open/positive relationship to and dialogue with the world, 3) responding as the Church is called into question by modern World. Christian faith and praxis should be/remain/become again a relevant and inspirational source for contemporary life and society. Before, the church was seen as societas perfecta which had to protect its people from the evil world.

A pastoral council

more praxis than dogma (a novelty in church history), more pastoral than ideological, deal rather with norms than definitions, more inductive than deductive in method. Statement 30 june 1959.

Freedom for the Council

Council is the work of Holy Spirit; He quotes Pius XI referring to a council with the three actors: Devil - Holy Spirit - and finally Pope; low profile position of Pope. Perhaps it was example to curia not to control discussions. There was a question whether this was a new council or a continuation of Vatican I.

PART II: Preparation of the Council

Functioning of the Council

Chapter 5
Best prepared Council in the history of the Church, ca. 900 people involved

1) Antepreparatory phase

(May 1959-June 1960). 16 May 1959: Antepreparatory Commission was established, presided by Secretary of State Tardini (already a sign - it didn't go to Ottaviani of the Holy Office) in close collaboration with Roman Congregations; tried to get buy in of Curia (Secretariates, Courts and Congregations). Its task: organization of general consultation (bishops (2594), religious superiors (156), catholic universities (62)). It would be a general consultation of nearly 3000 people. It was not a questionnaire, but an opportunity to propose ideas for the council that they could answer “in freedom and serenity.” 2161 vota out of 2812. They were mostly timid and fragmentary, there were quite a number that were defensive in tone, but also we can witness a slow awakening

2) Preparatory phase

(June /November 1960-1962) Ten commissions, three secretariats, Central Preparatory Commission. Commissions: nine of them parallel to Roman Congregations. Composition: chaired by Prefects of Roman Congregations, apart from curia members, also growing number of bishops and religious superiors and theologians. No laypeople, no women. 9 commissions parallel with roman congregations. They choose members from within the curia. They had been against the council, this might have helped to get some buy in.
-Theological (Holy Office)
-Bishops and Governance of Dioceses (Consistory)
-Discipline of the Clergy and the Christian people (Council)
-Religious (SCRIS)
-Discipline of Sacraments
-Studies and Seminaries
-Missions (Propaganda Fide)
-Oriental Churches
-Liturgy
-Laity (No such Roman congregation)

Secretariats were established in addition:
-for promoting Christian Unity (Cardinal Bea) - he went abroad to find members for the commission. They went beyond the standard italian usage for the other commissions, using other languages.
-for Communications Media (Archbishop O’Connor)
-for Economic and Technical Affairs

Task

prepare schemata for the Council - gives power to curia. There were no directives, mass of material; 75 schemata: mostly inventory of theology and practice prevailing in Rome, without attention to problems in the world; against this defensive tendency (cfr. theological commission) dynamic influence of Secretariat of Christian Unity.

Central Preparatory Commission (June 1960/November 1961-June 1962)

presided by Pope, presidents of preparatory commissions, -bishops, religious superiors (June 1962: 115 members, 57 nationalities)

task

settle rules for the Council; examine, correct schemes of preparatory commissions; serious confrontations, general repetition for Council debates. Conservative: Ottaviani - heavy handed.

Formation of Council's identity

Chapter 6: conditions, rules and regulations

1) Participants

a World Council, 2500 Council Fathers, compared to 700 at Vatican I, 1870. There were cardinals, bishops, superior generals with a great variety, in age, experience, geography:worldwide representation: Western Europe (32%), Latin America (22%), North America (12%), Asiatic World (10%), Black Africa (9%), Communist Block (7%), Arab World (4%), Oceania (3%). Dominant position of Western Europe: France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, 1/3 from western europe, but very important. Also, most from abroad were European missionaries, or certainly european trained.
Experts included officially appointed: periti, private advisors - 240 people at the start, grew to 430. Task of experts: 1) redaction and revision of schemes, preparation interventions, conferences.

2) Majority and minority

proponents of aggiornamento were in the majority: Lercaro, Suenens, Döpfner, Frings, König, Alfrink, Lienant. 80%, more or less. But neither group was completely cohesive or lockstep. This is the opposite of Vatican I.
Conservative minority including Ottaviani, Siri, Ruffini. Marcel Lefevre formed coetus internationalis patrum.
There were many informal contacts.

3) Direction and deliberation

4 sessions, 3 intersessions.

Deliberation procedures

1) debate, amendments (modi), vote (2/3 majority) by general Assembly of Council fathers. This was different from Vatican I which just had used simple majority. This was a requirement of John XXIII. Placet, non placet or placet iuxta modum; 2) preparation, revision and reworking of schemes by Conciliar Commissions (ten commissions of Fathers and periti) + Secretary of Christian Unity. Press was part of the commission on laity. They did the editing of the texts, implementing the interventions from the council hall. They also had to remake documents if a schema was completely rejected.

Directive forces

1) Practical organization: Secretary General Felici; 2) Direction of Council debates; During the first session they established a Council of Presidents (ten Cardinals) not a real team, didn't succeed in leading the debates. 3) from second session: four moderators whose authority wasn't ever clearly defined, not clear the interrelation with the council of presidents who were not abolished. The moderators were: Lercaro, Suenens, Döpfner, (progressinve) and Agagianian (traditional).

Direction and composition of Commissions

Not well coordinated. first session composition: 25 (9 appointed by the pope, 16 elected) fathers and periti; president, vice-president, secretary: predominance of curial prelates. Head of Curial Congregation was head of the congregation. From second session reorganization of commissions by Paul VI to decrease curial power. (5 more members (4 elected), two vice-presidents (1 elected), two secretaries (1 elected). General direction January 1963: Coordinating Commission was a 'super-commission' to oversee all the work of all the commissions; 8 members SOS was president: Cicognani, secretary: Felici, 6 cardinals including Suenens (Malines), Lienart (Lille), Dopfner (munich) - more progressive; and Urbani, Spellman, Confalonieri (more traditional). Growing influence of Pericli Felici in direction of Council - who was a fourth force in the council. Paul VI let him take the lead, he could move the council forward. The conservatives turned more and more to Felici (Presidents ineffective, Moderators wouldn't listen). A multi-headed oranism.
-Theological (Holy Office)
-Bishops and Governance of Dioceses (Consistory)
-Discipline of the Clergy and the Christian people (Council)
-Religious (SCRIS)
-Discipline of Sacraments
-Studies and Seminaries
-Missions (Propaganda Fide)
-Oriental Churches
-Liturgy
-Laity (No such Roman congregation) - also had Mass Media
-Secretary of Christian Unity

4) The press

There was secrecy in the preparatory work - they were viewed as internal discussions, not for the public; so they worked with 'leaks'. Problems of information during first session. From second session: press committee, daily press conferences. This also created an influence of press on Council: aspirations of public opinion.

Paul VI and proceeding of the Council

Chapter 7 - The formation of the Councils identity - First session and intersession.

1) The opening of the Council

Real grandeur, covered by press all over the world. 11 Octobre 1962, St Pietersbasilica, John XXIII: Carried in on sedia gestatoria, but once in the Basilica, he went on foot, with miter (not tiara), showed himself a brother among equals. Opening Mass, Speech: renovating task of Council in an optimistic tone: -catholic doctrine and practice; new attitude towards heresy and error, don't condemn, but treat in mercy and clemency; unity among christians and in all the human community. All in latin, supposed this would eliminate the layer of translation and diversity of meaning.

2) First Session

(11 Oct-8 Dec. 1962)

A) First Moves

Opening 13 October. Election of the conciliar commissions were not merely an approval of the lists prpared by the preparatory commission. Liénart/Frings: opposition to approval of prepared lists: postponement. Concertation between bishops, On 16 Octobre there were lists presented, the "european list" french and german Election: had mixture of old and new members in commissions. Further 9 appointments by Pope. They were not schoolboys who could be manipulated, but they were a council. Now there was a renewal.

B) Liturgy

22 October-14 November: Scheme on Liturgy contained basic notions of Liturgical movement. It saw the first confrontation between majority (pro)/minority (contra), in particular on question of vernacular and autonomy of episcopal conferences. It was accepted with modi (2162 against 46). Half from outside Europe, even if european educated and perhaps even born. It was seen as a safe, easy place to start, best schema. Ottaviani had wanted to start with dogmatic issues. Free and active participation.

Revelation

14-20 November: de fontibus revelationis, strongly criticized by the progressives, defended by the conservatives. Scheme of Theological Commission - it had already caused controversy in the commission. Two controversial issues Too scholastic, not ecumenical. 1) Relation between Scripture and tradition - is this one or two sources? Against sola scriptura of the protestants. 2) Validity of methods of modern bible exegesis. Discussion paralyzed. They decided to a vote, but the vote was confused: -vote in atmosphere of confusion: Question was should we interrupt? It made it confusing, and a positive vote mean a negative answer. This resulted in pro 1368/contra 822, and the text saved. A lot of anger about the duplicity. Intervention John XXIII: revision by mixed commission (with Secretariat Christian Unity, Ottaviani and Bea)

C) Mass Media

23-27 November: It was a more relaxed discussion, only: positive stance towards possibilities to use them for the apostolate. No critical issues. It was criticized on superficial and narrow-clerical approach. Approved with modi (2138/15). Never touched issues of human rights.

Christian Unity

26 November-1 December: scheme of Commission of Oriental Churches, Critic of majority: 1) only dealing (sometimes in upsetting way) with separated Oriental Churches, so that the tone was abrasive to protestants, and eastern catholics. 2) mediocrity, 3) no coordination with other commissions (Secr. Christian Unity/Theol.Commission). vote: 2068/36: redraft in mixed commission. There were several schemae on christian unity, this was only one. The similar schemata should be discussed together and unified.

De Ecclesia

Scheme on Holy Virgin: postponed; priority to scheme on the Church De Ecclesia. 1-7 December, a scheme of Theological Commission. It had merits but also lot of critics: it was too clerical, triumphal, juridical tone, it showed ignorance of recent ecclesiological views (collegiality of bishops, people of God), maintain a medieval conception Church/State. Discussion resulted in a vote for full revision.
D) Reconsidering the program of the Council. It became clear there was unrealistic and disorganized proceeding, there was an ineffective direction. There is a need for need for a clear concept and orientation. Yet before Council: memorandum to John XXIII from Cardinal Suenens: advised discussion on 1) Church ad intra (life of Church) and 2) Church ad extra (relation to World). This was the inspiration for speech of the pope, but the ideas were not made concrete in the council itself. Also Montini: proposals for ‘organic and logical plan’ for the council, recommending concentration on one theme: Church: 1) the mystery of the Church; 2) mission of the Church; 3) relation Church-World. In November the Pope invited them on 4 and 5 December: Suenens and Montini launch their plan, announcing the scheme to the assembly in the council hall. It made some sensation, seen as having the backing of the pope. Also by this time John XXIII knew he was dying and wouldn't see the end of the council.
E) Closing first Session on 7 December: Papal decisions: 1) reduction of number schemes; 2) redrafting in spirit of aggiornamento and unity; 3) establishment of ‘supercommission’, Coordinating Commission: coordinate and control work of commissions; 4) forming of mixed commissions; 5) schemes before summer: back to bishops - should be ready for the next session; 6) 8 December: Closing Adress of John XXIII.
3) First intersession: the second Preparation with the Start of the Coordinating Commission: 21 January 1963 (Felici, Cicognani, Confalonieri, Döpfner, Liénart, Spellman, Suenens, Urbani). The confrontation continued; they decided to keep 17 schemes; they rearranged mixed commissions and sub-commissions. At the end of May: schemes went back to Council Fathers. This was the new start for Council under the constant impulse of pope: first John XXIII, next Paul VI who was elected 21 June 1963 who wrote the encyclical Ecclesiam suam (August 1964): concept in line with majority of the Council.

Paul VI and the Council.

Chapter 8 - The Second Session and Intersession (1963-1964)

1) A new Pope

Paul VI - Death of John XIII on 3 June 1963. Election of Giovanni Battista Montini (not a ultra progressive: Lercaro, Siri). He was seen as moderate progressive, but had a different personality than John XXIII, more reserved, even hesitant. Modern, openness to renewal of theology and liturgy, influenced by French catholics. But had the same inspiration as John XXIII. He was even more ‘pope of the Council’: successful ending and implementation. The name of Paul meant pilgrim and reference to Paul V (1605-1621) did a lot for implementation of trent.

2) Preparation of the new session

29 September 1963. On 21 September: revision of Rules provided more opennes to press, greater participation of laypeople: new category of auditors, he announced a reform of Curia saying it should no longer be an obstacle to reform. The curia should be more international, there should be more influence of local churches. He reserved reform of the curia to himself. He also reorganized of Commissions: they had 16 elected members and 9 appointed by the pope but still the president, vice and secretary came from the curial congregation: he added 5 members 4 voted by the council, 1 appointed by the pope. There were additional elected vicepres and secretary. He established a team of 4 Moderators for direction of Council (Suenens, Dofner, Lercano, Aggianan). He placed priority to debate on Church - rethinking of relations between pope and bishops.

3) The second Session (1963)

- started with a simple ceremony and promising atmosphere. Opening address of Pope: four aims: 1) reflection on nature of the Church; 2) inner renewal of the Church; 3) unity among Christians - no longer separated brethren and apologized for failings in these relations in the past; 4) dialogue Church and World.

a) Discussion on the __Church__

(Scheme De Ecclesia), discussed till 30 October. 4 chapters: 1) Church as mysterium; 2) hierarchical structure; 3) People of God and the Laity; 4) Holiness in the Church. The most controversial issues were collegiality of bishops: common responsibility with Pope (plena potestas from Pastor Aeternus) and the permanent diaconate - this came from the vota, also for shortage of priests, open for married men. Moderators asked 5 leanings: 1) is episcopal ordination sacramental? Bishop was seen as pastor and administrator, but not so much orders. By bringing that back, the priest got squeezed between the 'fulness of priesthood' bishop and the new deaconate. 2) does ordination make a bishop member of the college of bishops? 3) is the college of bishops successor of the college of apostles with highest authority? 4) is this authority based on divine right? or does he get power from the pope? 5) is it a good idea to restore the permanent diaconate? more than 80% for collegiality; 75% for permanent diaconate. Ottaviani said he wouldn't accept this. There was the notion of: universal priesthood of faithful, cleric is merely a functionary, not essentially different from the laity, all share in the sanctifying, teaching and governing mission in the church (priest, prophet, pastor). Suenens made the proposal to split 4th Chapter, People of God as 2nd Chapter (before Hierarchy) - revolutionary.

b) Continuation of Debates 5-15 November

Scheme Pastoral Office of Bishops was accepted as base for further discussion. There was a vivid discussion: 1) protest against stealth modifications to the disadvantage of local Church, 2) proposals for superior Council of Bishops, parliament, etc. challenged the power of the curia, Paul VI had alluded to this, the Curia was seen as too centralized, and dictatorial, italian, 3) critique on Theological Commission - Frings said they and Ottaviani had to listen to the Council, it is at the service of the Council, not the other way around. Ottaviani said if you attack the Holy Office, you attack the pope who is the prefect of the Congregation. The same evening, Paul VI called Frings to appreciate his critique and to send a proposal for reform of the curia, 4) critique on Curia, need for reform (Frings (Köln) - strongly attacked Ottaviani and HO is outdated, secrecy, no right of defense), 5) support of Paul VI: rehabilitation Rahner - appointed as peritus, 6) age limit for bishops, 7) establishment episcopal conferences. Curia had four main divisions: Congregations, most important was Holy Office; Administration; Tribunals; Councils and Secretariates.

18 November-2 December: ecumenism (Scheme De oecumenismo)

principles Catholic ecumenism (ch.1); actual state (ch. 2); relations with other Churches (ch.3); -position of Jewish religion (ch.4); religious liberty - a novelty at the time (ch.5); inspired by Card. Bea. Well received by the Council. Open to more ecumenical approach of Catholic Church; accepted with modi (1966 to 86); last two chapters: debate postponed till third session; scheme on Laity: also postponed.

c) Final Votes

18-22 November: scheme on Liturgy: accepted with 2158 against 19 votes; proclaimed 4 December 1963: Constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium; Provides for full and active participation, vernacular (without doing a simultaneous latin reading, e.g. ), enhanced significance Holy Scripture (comment in homily, rather than series of moral exhortations), implementation by episcopal conferences and established postconciliar Commission on 25 January 1964

Media of Communication

14-25 November; still critic on shortcomings (superficial, narrow apostolic and clerical vision); but also approved with 1960 against 164 votes; proclaimed as Decree Inter Mirifica; feeling: discouragement, but the struggle has to go on.

Pilgrimage

Paul VI announced he would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem in January 64; He would meet with Athenagoras, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.

4) The Intersession 1963-64 __a. Revision of the schemes__

Cardinal Döpfner with approval of Coordinating Commission: proposal drastic restructuration; limit to six schemes (Church, Bishops and government of Dioceses, Revelation, Apostolate of the Laity, Ecumenism, Church and World); other schemes: reduction to propositions; this work (though with reluctance) done by the commissions.

Theological Commission

Scheme on Revelation: problems with minority; Scheme on Church: 8 subcommissions; added some Belgians to mediate Charue Exegete from Namur, important role of new secretary G. Philips (Systematist from KUL); addition section on priests in Chapter on Hierarchy; addition two Chapters (on Holy Virgin (conservatives wanted a separate document, but the majority wanted a more christological approach) and Eschatological aspect of the Church). Question on sources of revelation, scripture and tradition or are they only one? Charue precided the biblical subcommission. Texts improved from the viewpoint of the majority: one source of revelation, two forms - (conservatives weren't happy). Suggested in addition to teh schema and a relatio on the majority report, there would be a minority report.

b) Counter-offensive by minority

call for papal support on several issues: wanted place of the BVM, opposed: exultation of scripture to the detriment of tradition and the role of the Church, historical-critical biblical studies, removal of notion of deicide by Jews, religious liberty, collegiality of bishops; Paul VI: May 1964 he intervenes with a series of suggestions to Theological Commission, not imposed, but suggested.

April-July

texts back to fathers, written observations requested before the third session to expedite work; note of Cardinal Larraona - prefect of liturgy sent a letter to the pope in the name of 40 others - skip the notions on epicopal collegiality because we're not ready - this was from the minority.

c) Paul VI and the Council

feeling of malaise among majority for different reasons: There was a manifest will of Pope to end Council with third session (not possible for the majority - this is a liquidation of the council, no space for debates.); 2) Paul made no more allusions on collegiality and no more indication of reform of Curia; this seemed to indicate support to minority. Pessimistic interpretations not fully justified - Pope seemed to favor reform without haste; However, there were signs of hope: 1) appointed 35/42 reformist members in Postconciliar Commission on Liturgy, Laraona, prefect of Congregation on Ligurgy wasn't appointed president, instead it was Lercaro - very progressive; 2) considering idea of episcopal Council; 3) strong support modern bible exegesis; 4) encyclical Ecclesiam suam (6 August) opening the church to dialogue with the world. As pope, he still supported reform, and seemed to want to avoid open conflict, so he mitigated some of the advances.

motives

canalize not impose orientations of Council; avoid harsh conflicts by providing counterbalance to majority.

The mature Council

Chapter 9 - The mature Council: Third and fourth session

A.Third session:: Start on 14 September 1964 in an optimistic atmosphere, the session had a climax and most serious crisis. The schemes on the agenda were Church, Bishops, Ecumenism, Revelation, Laity and Church and World. Church, Bishops, Ecumenism, Revelation, had already been discussed.
On the Church:: 8 Chapters well received: Chapter 1. Mystery of the Church and Chapter 2, The People of God, were well received. Ch.3 The Hierarchy Collegiality of Bishops: only 330 non placet. There was approval of permanent diaconate: compromise - married men over 35 married men, younger men should be required to be celibate. Chapter 4 Laity; Chapter 5. Vocation to Holiness; Chapter 6. Religious life; Added Chapters were: Chapter 7. Eschatological Nature and Chapter 8. Blessed Virgin. There was Rejection of titles ‘Mediatrix’ and ‘Mother of the Church’. The schema was sent back for last adjustment by Commission.

1. Scheme on the Pastoral Office of Bishops:: 18-20 September, discussion on ‘plena potestas’, the bishops shared in the potestas and not in the plena potestas. Sent back for last revision. Relation with exempt orders was also a sticking point.

2.Religious liberty and the Jews:: (23-29 September) Religious liberty: fierce confrontation because of a theocratic view, mostly Italians and Spanish, state seen as at the service of the church. However there was support because of liberty of conscience/religion: American and East-Europeans Bishops. The schema was sent back for revision. 1864, Pius IX published Quanta Cura, a syllabus of errors including the 'error' of freedom of conscience, freedom of religion; these were condemned. The church hadn't accepted the principle of the modern state. Depanloup differentiated against thesis and hypothesis. The pope only condemned the principle of an irreligious state, not freedom of religion as such. The theocrats could only 'tolerate' erroneous religions, but not rights.

3. Revised Scheme on Jews:: Coordinating Commission: weakened wording in favor of Arab bishops who would feel pressure if there was a strong support of the Jews. There was no explicit acquittal of deicide. Majority for restoration original text. Also proposal: enlarge to general dealing with non-Christian religions.

4. 30 Sept.-6 October: Revelation:: Congar, Rahner, and big progressive names reworked the schema. Well received by the assembly and for the observers. There was still the resentment of minority. They wanted more explicit historicity of the gospels. sent back for revision.

5. 7-20 October: Laity:: agreement with general orientation but more elaboration needed on spirituality and responsibility of laypeople. The amount of work needed made it clear that a fourth Session was necessary.

6. 20 October-9 November: Scheme XIII (Church and World):: There was tension between proponents of theological or sociological orientation; there was a need for more thorough reflection and for revision.

7. ‘Short’ schemes:: discussion needed, all sent back for revision: -priests: to superficial; -Eastern Churches: lack ecumenical spirit; -missions; -religious life: to juridical, lack of renewing spirit; -seminarians; -Christian education; -marriage. All this gave rise to malaise, tense atmosphere - lots of work, discussions, etc.

8. La Settimana Nera:: 9-20 November: Crisis. Minority succeeds to get support from the Pope in its resistance. Three incidents:

16 Conciliar Documents:
4 Constitutions:
Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963)
Lumen Gentium (1964)
Dei Verbum (1965)
Gaudium et Spes (1965)

9 Decrees:
Inter mirifica (1963)
Orientalium ecclesiarum (1964)
Unitatis Redintegratio (1964)
Christus Dominus (1965)
Optatam totius (1965)
Perfectae Caritatis (1965)
Apostolicam actuositatem (1965)
Ad gentes (1965)
Presbyterorum Ordinis (1965)

3 Declarations:
Gravissimum educationis (1965)
Nostra Aetate (1965)
Dignitatis humanae (1965)

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